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Chapter Two - Survey of Literature




Chapter Two: Survey of Related Literature

          Study in the area of computer application considered by different researchers time to time. But attending Competency Enhancement through Computer Aided Learning was not evident as such. It was also application oriented trend of study that observed during a survey of the data obtained from the library and internet.
The term "Computer Aided Learning" or CAL comes from qualitative research conducted in the UK during the mid 1970's examining "learning" interactions between different types of learners (adults, school children, military training, etc.) and mainframe computer systems. These instructional systems didn't claim "teaching" was a substantial part of human-computer interactions involved. The instructional designs employed what was at that time called in the U.S. "Computer Assisted Instruction" or CAI. Communication or interaction with human "teachers" simply wasn't a part of the system's designs.

Since the 1970's the instructional uses of computer systems has undergone a rapid and remarkable transformation. In the US, first there was the University of Illinois PLATO system, then there were early "free standing" microcomputers which were eventually connected together into microcomputer "networks." Early network nodes were eventually connected between American military installations and universities, Then the "Internet" evolved and has continued to do so at an increasingly and relentless rate ever since. (See "Migration of CAI Content for Online Delivery" below for annotated details.)

The case studies shared here trace the evolution of computer use in the schools from early use of Apple II e's and TRS 80, Model IV's, up to and through the evolution and rapid decline of "Integrated Learning Systems" deployed via "local area networks" in public and private schools. The lessons learned from these educational studies are as relevant today as they were when these now obsolete microcomputers were considered to be "state of the art.".

Why? Because these educational case-studies are about students, teachers, curriculum, instruction and the educational policies conditioning how technologies do or don't fit in classrooms and schools. Even with the rapid growth of on online teaching and learning, the stories are still about students and teachers interacting in schools and communities.  


Some Key initiatives

Consideration of Azim Premji Foundation in the application side of the mechanism observed. The Computer Aided Learning program was initiated in the year 2002 to harness the potential of computer technology for education. The objectives of the program were to make learning a play, assessment a fun and equal knowledge for all students. During implementation, the objective of ‘equal knowledge for all’ got converted to ‘equal opportunity for all’. To this end, the Foundation created syllabus-based bi/trilingual multimedia contents. As a part of the program, the content along with a one-day orientation was given to teachers. The program, in partnership with the respective State governments, covered approximately 16,000 Schools across 14 States in the country. The program identified 6 factors critical to the success of computer aided learning. These are
Teacher involvement and leadership
Computer Aided Learning to be an integral part of teachers’ pedagogy and classroom processes and not a stand-alone activity
Dedicated Government resource and ownership
All time availability of the prescribed infrastructure and hardware
Availability of digital learning material of adequate quality and quantity. Continuous ongoing dialogue with teachers to explore the strengths of the available technology. These critical factors provided the ground for developing a demonstrable model of computer aided learning. The model took the form of a systematic research study on capability development of teachers and also to support them to use technology to meet the ends of learning.



Fig 2.1: Students working on Computer in a school. Number of Students per computer at a time is 2 to 3. Sometimes it is 4. Students seldom get much time for doing assignments. For example in Mahila Ashram High School of Wardh this Student: Computer ratio is 2:1.

According to International World Wide Web Conference Proceedings of the 15th international conference on World Wide Web ( Edinburgh, Scotland SESSION: Developing regions 2), Computer-aided learning is fast gaining traction in developing regions as a means to augment classroom instruction. Reasons for using computer-aided learning range from supplementing teacher shortages to starting underprivileged children off in technology, and funding for such initiatives range from state education funds to international agencies and private groups interested in child development. The interaction of children with computers is seen at various levels, from unsupervised self-guided learning at public booths without specific curriculum to highly regulated in-class computer applications with modules designed to go with school curriculum. Such learning is used at various levels from children as young as 5 year-old to high-schoolers. This paper uses field observations of primary school children in India using computer-aided learning modules, and finds patterns by which children who perform better in classroom activities seat themselves in front of computer monitors, and control the mouse, in cases where children are required to share computer resources. We find that in such circumstances, there emerges a pattern of learning, unique to multi-user environments - wherein certain children tend to learn better because of their control of the mouse. This research also shows that while computer aided learning software for children is primarily designed for single-users, the implementation realities of resource-strapped learning environments in developing regions presents a strong case for multi-user design.


According to a study conducted by  David Moore; Paul McGrath; John Thorpe  (Computer-Aided Learning for People with Autism - a Framework for Research and Development ) , there is good evidence that computer-aided learning is well accepted by students with autism and is of great potential benefit to them. Despite the potential, however, the field remains relatively unexplored. This paper therefore proposes a framework for further research and development in the field of computer-aided learning for students with autism. The framework is based around the core deficiencies of autism, namely a social impairment, a communication impairment, rigidity and inflexibility in thinking and a theory of mind deficit. Proposals for computer-aided learning systems for each of these areas are put forward, and our current development work outlined.

Genesis of E Learning
As early as 1993, William D. Graziadei1 described an online computer-delivered lecture, tutorial and assessment project using electronic Mail, with several software programs that allowed students and instructor to create a Virtual Instructional Classroom Environment in Science (VICES) in Research, Education, Service & Teaching (REST).3 In 1997 Graziadei, W.D., et al.,4 published an article entitled "Building Asynchronous and Synchronous Teaching-Learning Environments: Exploring a Course/Classroom Management System Solution".4 They described a process at the State University of New York (SUNY) of evaluating products and developing an overall strategy for technology-based course development and management in teaching-learning. The product(s) had to be easy to use and maintain, portable, replicable, scalable, and immediately affordable, and they had to have a high probability of success with long-term cost-effectiveness. Today many technologies can be, and are, used in e-learning, from blogs to collaborative software,ePortfolios, and virtual classrooms. Most eLearning situations use combinations of these techniques.
Bates and Poole (2003) and the OECD (2005) suggest that different types or forms of e-learning can be considered as a continuum, from no e-learning, i.e. no use of computers and/or the Internet for teaching and learning, through classroom aids, such as making classroom lecture Powerpoint slides available to students through a course web site or learning management system, to laptop programs, where students are required to bring laptops to class and use them as part of a face-to-face class, to hybrid learning, where classroom time is reduced but not eliminated, with more time devoted to online learning, through to fully online learning, which is a form of distance education. This classification is somewhat similar to that of the Sloan Commission reports on the status of e-learning. which refer to web enhanced, web supplemented and web dependent to reflect increasing intensity of technology use. In the Bates and Poole continuum, 'blended learning' can cover classroom aids, laptops and hybrid learning, while 'distributed learning' can incorporate either hybrid or fully online learning.
In Datacloud: Toward a New Theory of Online Work, Johndan Johnson-Eilola describes a specific computer-supported collaboration space: The Smart Board. According to Johnson-Eilola, a “Smart Board system provides a 72-inch, rear projection, touchscreen, intelligent whiteboard surface for work”. In Datacloud, Johnson-Eilola asserts that “[w]e are attempting to understand how users move within information spaces, how users can exist within information spaces rather than merely gaze at them, and how information spaces must be shared with others rather than being private, lived within rather than simply visited”. He explains how the Smart Board system offers an information space that allows his students to engage in active collaboration. He makes three distinct claims regarding the functionality of the technology: 1) The Smart Board allows users to work with large amounts of information, 2) It offers an information space that invites active collaboration, 3) The work produced is often “dynamic and contingent” (82).



Bringing Computer at School

Zlatan Magajna  studied about school level applications and its impact. Dynamic Geometry Systems (DGS) are powerful presentation and visualisation tools; however, they are not so useful in helping students to prove facts and to understand how theorems and proofs originate in one's mind. To facilitate the learning of proving geometry facts a software program has been developed by the author. The considered geometric configuration is first constructed on a DGS. The programme reads the drawing and lists several 'observable' properties of the configuration. The student then sets the problem space by selecting the facts s/he finds relevant to the proof. Finally, the student builds a proof by connecting the facts in problem space with logical argumentations in an iconic and/or symbolic view. The software can be used as well for exploring configurations and finding out novel properties (theorems). The effect of using the software has been investigated on a small scale experiment.
Alison Lane and Mike Porch organized a study on the impact of Computer Aided Learning on nonspecialised accounts graduates. This study examines the factors affecting students' performance on an introductory UK undergraduate financial accounting course and changes in students' attitudes and perceptions towards Computer Aided Learning (CAL) and accounting. It differs from previous research in that non-specialist accounting students taught using CAL are studied here. Questionnaire data was collected at the beginning and end of the module and is statistically analysed. Multiple regression analysis on student performance shows that age and attitude towards accounting are significant influences, but that attitude towards CAL and students' entry qualifications are not. Students' perceptions of CAL appear to be affected negatively by its use. The study shows that students are significantly more likely to perceive CAL as easy to use, but significantly less likely to view it as flexible, helpful or useful in improving computer literacy. Students' perceptions of accounting as a subject are also negatively affected. They are shown to be significantly less likely to choose to study accounting and significantly more likely to view accounting as a boring subject, following the completion of a CAL course. The negative impact on students' perceptions and attitudes towards CAL and accounting has implications for extending the use of CAL in order to efficiently redirect limited staff resources. However, given that there is no significant effect on performance this may warrant further consideration by higher education institutions.
A Co-operative research project in Computer-Aided Learning, J.W. Brahan and W.C. Brown

In 1967, the National Research Council (NRC) began a preliminary study of the application of computers as aids to learning. This initial work led to the establishment of a central research facility which is used by the NRC and a number of educational research organizations in a co-operative program of research into computer-aided learning. This central facility includes a medium-scale time sharing computer which is accessible to the participating organizations by means of remote terminals.
A major objective of the project is to provide a facility which will allow the active co-operation of research workers throughout Canada in the development and evaluation of Computer-Aided Learning (CAL) systems to meet Canadian requirements. The NRC efforts are concentrated in the areas of development of terminal equipment, specialized computer facilities, and system programs. Examples of such development include audio tape and disc storage units, a transparent touch-sensitive tablet for computer input, alphanumeric and graphic display devices, line-concentrator systems and supporting-system programs. The co-operating educational organizations provide the facilities for the development and testing of course material and evaluation of terminal equipment. In some cases they assist in the development of system programs.
The first participating educational organization to go “on line” was the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education in Toronto which was linked to the computer early in 1970. Since that time, the number of on-line participants has grown to six.
The project provides a means for close communication between the educational researcher and the system designer. In this way, effective use can be made of available resources to arrive at a system specification which more closely meets the requirements of the user than might otherwise be possible.
This paper, presented at the Canadian Symposium on Instructional Technology, describes the computer-aided learning research project which was introduced in some detail in an earlier paper (Haney, Brown and Brahan, 1973).
 A Dissertation prepared by MSc Students (Computer aided learning in teaching special needs pupils),The dissertation aims to investigate the use of computer aided learning (CAL) in teaching special education needs (SEN) children reporting on the development (design, implementation and evaluation) of a CAL system for the teaching of Key Stage 1 English to SEN pupils. A literature review covers the theories and styles of learning, national curriculum requirements in English teaching, the existing CAL systems, the issues of computer/learner interaction, etc. The study is based on primary (interviews with class teachers) and secondary research methods. Conclusions are made about the efficiency of the system and the limitations of the project development.
In another Paper presented at the annual AARE-NZARE Conference, Melbourne, November, 1999. Correspondence addressed to Agnes Dodds, Faculty Education Unit, The Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Vic. 3010 envisages a sharp shift of thought process toward problem oriented analytical study. The context of this study is a problem oriented multimedia tutorial that assists undergraduate physiology students to construct a schematic animated diagram showing the functioning of an acid secreting cell in the stomach lining, which students have rated very positively. The aim of our research was to use this context to investigate what is needed to obtain an adequate understanding of how and what students actually learn from such tutorials. To meet this goal we investigated the relationships between: what has to be learnt; aspects of the design of the tutorial setting (the tasks to be undertaken, the feedback provided, and the number of students collaborating at each computer); learner characteristics (the course being undertaken and self perceptions of approaches to learning, efficacy, and prior knowledge); the learners' thoughts about and decisions during the tutorial tasks; and success in a delayed transfer task. The study required the development of revised scales of approaches to learning and self efficacy, new measures of students' self-perceived strategies, and a new method of analysing computer generated audit trails of students' decisions during the tutorial. The results indicated instructive relationships between the above factors. Self perceptions of learning approaches and efficacy were moderately correlated with reported tutorial task strategies, but not with actual decisions inferred from the audit trails. However, some self-reported strategies and actual decisions were moderately correlated. The correlations between audit trail variables and performance on the remote transfer task, which was much poorer than expected, were small and not significant. We examine possible reasons for this, particularly by comparing expectations of what would be learnt, the tutorial design itself, and the nature of the transfer task, and draw conclusions on the kind of research necessary to inform development of interactive computer tutorials that assist students to construct mental models of scientific phenomena.

Parent’s Perspective

In using computers, parents are left worrying that it is their responsibility to help their children prepare for the millennium. Parents have to make sure they're giving their children a positive experience that's also appropriate for their age. And that means that parents have to be actively involved in the process of learning. Enhancing language and social/cooperative experience among children will be properly attended. According to Linda Henry's writing for your "Baby Today", software manufacturers already tapped the market that involved infants from six months to two years of age. But while it has the power to make our lives easier, many parents are justly concerned about protecting their children from the computer especially the Internet's darker fringes. For parents of a toddler or a preschooler, the true challenge is not protecting him from inappropriate usage or websites, it's finding and guiding him to what's good and beneficial in the use of computers. Cognizant of the above, this research is being undertaken to provide practical guidelines for raising computer whiz kids in an effort to strengthen parents in their role as their children's primary teachers. This means that babies are already reared to become computer whiz kids as early as infancy. Reports and researches indicate that in the coming years more than 50 percent of new jobs will have the need for technological skills. But computers transform at a fast pace, and everyone from teachers to politicians lament about the failure of Philippine schools to give their students or the children the foundation they'll need to succeed in the 21st-century economy. And it promises to become only more so. The company, Knowledge Adventure created Jump Start Baby and calls it as "lapware," since it is designed for babies who are sitting on their parent's lap at the computer.



The Application of Technology

This research examined the issue of the effectiveness of the use of computer in the instructional process. Effectiveness within the context of this research refered to learning outcomes. Definitions of instructional technology typically vary according to the way in which the factor is conceptualized by those individuals constructing the definitions (Saettler, 1994, p. 2). There are two widely accepted conceptualizations of instructional technology the physical science concept and the behavioral science concept.
When instructional technology is considered within the context of physical science, it is typically viewed as the application of physical science and engineering technology to the process of education (Saettler, 1994, p. 4). This concept emphasizes device effects and procedures, as opposed to instructional content and learner differences. The development of the physical science concept of instructional technology was not greatly influenced by the interrelationships between educational needs and psychological theory, on the one hand, and the design of instructional messages and media, on the other hand (Finn, 1960, p. 4).
Computer Aided Intructional (CAI)  software programs facilitate this learning process. Similarly, CAI software may be designed to reflect the cognitive processes employed in the acquiring of skills related to mathematics, science, and engineering. Another illustration from a basic education level is that comprehension in reading comes from within the mind, rather than from the text being read (Anderson-Inman, 1994, p. 280). Thus, prior knowledge and experiences are an essential part that equip the  process of comprehension. CAI software programs may be designed to take advantage of the knowledge and experience levels of specific student users. The ability of CAI software to relate the learning experience to the learner's prior experiences and knowledge is of inestimable value in the teaching of mathematics. Several specific advantages are provided by CAI software programs in the teaching of mathematics. The most significant of the advantages available through the use of CAI are as follows: 1. CAI software programs permit the placing of emphasis on a comprehensive understanding of a topic, as opposed to specific aspects of a topic. 

Tetrahedral  Framework

In order to study the features mentioned above, the so called "tetrahedral model" used by Brown, Bransford, Ferrara and Campione (1983) provided a useful beginning theoretical framework because it emphasises the interrelations between the learning task (the material to be learnt), learner characteristics, learning activities, and the criterial task. However, this framework does not distinguish between the learning tasks and feedback provided by the teacher or program, which could be considered as part of the task design, and the learning procedures and strategies the students actually use in undertaking the task. We also wished to distinguish between performance on the initial task and subsequent performance on related tasks. Brown et al (1983) used the term "criterial task" to suggest that learning was being aimed at a particular type of performance. We prefer to investigate "transfer tasks," which may differ to varying degrees from the original task, to describe the means of assessing desirable outcomes.

Learning Companion

The salient curriculum context of the empirical study was that tertiary students were working collaboratively in small groups with a computer tutorial in order to study an aspect of physiology - cell action in gastric acid secretion - that had previously proven difficult for students to understand in the normal course of lectures and related laboratory work (see Weaver, Petrovic, Dodds, Harris, Delbridge, and Kemm, 1996 for a full report, and Kemm, Weaver, Dodds, Evans, Garland, Petrovic, Delbridge, & Harris, 1997 for an evaluation). What had to be learnt were the biochemical and physiological principles and mechanisms involved in this particular type of cell, hopefully to a level where the principles and mechanisms could be applied to a different but related type of cell. Although this tutorial was specifically designed as part of the second-year Physiology course for Medical and Physiotherapy students, it was also used by second year Science students, who did not complete the associated practical laboratory class but who were given the completed data sheets for interpretation after completing the gastric acid cell tutorial. This was an obvious difference in the context of the course groups.
Although mechanical examples of computers have existed through much of recorded human history, the first electronic computers were developed in the mid-20th century (1940–1945). These were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs). Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space. Simple computers are small enough to fit into a wristwatch, and can be powered by a watch battery. Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are what most people think of as "computers". The embedded computers found in many devices from MP3 players to fighter aircraft and from toys to industrial robots are however the most numerous.
A Versatile Instrument
The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely versatile, distinguishing them from calculators. The Church–Turing thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility: any computer with a certain minimum capability is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform. Therefore computers ranging from a mobile phone to asupercomputer are all able to perform the same computational tasks, given enough time and storage capacity.
In 1837, Charles Babbage was the first to conceptualize and design a fully programmable mechanical computer, his analytical engine. Limited finances and Babbage's inability to resist tinkering with the design meant that the device was never completed.
In the late 1880s, Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a machine readable medium. Prior uses of machine readable media, above, had been for control, not data. "After some initial trials with paper tape, he settled on punched cards ..." To process these punched cards he invented the tabulator, and the keypunch machines. These three inventions were the foundation of the modern information processing industry. Large-scale automated data processing of punched cards was performed for the 1890 United States Census by Hollerith's company, which later became the core of IBM. By the end of the 19th century a number of technologies that would later prove useful in the realization of practical computers had begun to appear: the punched card, Boolean algebra, the vacuum tube (thermionic valve) and the teleprinter.
During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers, which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for computation. However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers.
Alan Turing is widely regarded to be the father of modern computer science. In 1936 Turing provided an influential formalisation of the concept of the algorithm and computation with theTuring machine. Of his role in the modern computer, Time Magazine in naming Turing one of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century, states: "The fact remains that everyone who taps at a keyboard, opening a spreadsheet or a word-processing program, is working on an incarnation of a Turing machine."  The inventor of the program-controlled computer was Konrad Zuse, who built the first working computer in 1941 and later in 1955 the first computer based on magnetic storage.George Stibitz is internationally recognized as a father of the modern digital computer. While working at Bell Labs in November 1937, Stibitz invented and built a relay-based calculator he dubbed the "Model K" (for "kitchen table", on which he had assembled it), which was the first to use binary circuits to perform an arithmetic operation. Later models added greater sophistication including complex arithmetic and programmability.
Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL)
[Alejandra Martínez1, Yannis Dimitriadis2 and Pablo de la Fuente1 1Dpt. of Computer Science, University of Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain 2Dpt. of Signal Theory, Telecomunications and Telematics Engineering, University of Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain; ]
The area of Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) is a recent research paradigm in educational software, based on the application of computer networks to collaborative learning processes. From a theoretical perspective, CSCL is based on social theories on learning [1,2] that emphasise the role of social interaction in the construction of knowledge.  The development of CSCL systems is very complex, due to its interdisciplinary nature, the diversity of actors implied in the process, and the variety of aspects that must be considered: learning improvement, school organization, software design, distributed systems, human-computer interaction, etc. After the initial years of the paradigm, when the main efforts were oriented towards the design of innovative CSCL systems, it is now necessary to focus on their evaluation, in order to detect appropriate lines of research and development that might contribute to enrich the field. Given the nature of the area, these evaluation processes are complex, and can be oriented to any of the aforementioned issues.
CSCL signifies following aspects with utmost clarity:
·        Access to the sources of data. The access to the field is a known problem in ethnographic research, and the evaluation designs defined under this perspective consider explicitly how to face them. In the case of studies based on automatically collected data, it will be necessary to solve the technical problems related to data access, such as  the need of getting the appropriate rights from the system administrator to access the system logs. The tools will have to include specific functions to collect interactions, which should be independent of the code of the CSCL applications in order to provide modular solutions, and transparent to the users so that they do not interfere in the learning processes.
·        Management of large quantities of data with low semantic value. The computer provides the possibility of storing all the actions performed by the users with little or no effort. This can lead to a saturation of data with no meaningful value, impossible to process either automatically or manually. Thus, it is necessary to face the problem of the internal representation of the data so that it can support the analysis process.
·        New types of interaction. The introduction of computer networks promotes new forms of interaction, and with them, new challenges for research in collaborative learning. Crook distinguishes between interactions in front of the computer (small groups that work on the same computer); through the computer (communication or actions performed mediated by the network); and around the computer (interactions that take place at classrooms where work is supported by computers). The study presents the relationship among different aspects that must be taken into account in an evaluation process and the possible data sources that can be used in an ethnographic study, showing which of them are the most appropriate data sources for each one of the different aspects. Examining the table, it can be seen that the data collected by the system are the only source appropriate for the study of the interactions that occur through the computer, and thus, they play an important role in the evaluation of CSCL experiences. Additionally, data collected automatically can be used, in a complementary mode with other data sources, for the study of the interactions in front of the computer and the students’ attitudes. The research also shows that the global evaluation process has to consider a number of sources of data and evaluation issues. Therefore, the integration of all these issues should be a main objective in the design of evaluation processes of quality.
·         
Linguists in the literature of computers recognised the dual role of computer. That of the computer as a tool and that as a tutor.
Ahmat et al (1985) points out the auxiliary role of computer in education characterising it as a medium applied by teacher to serve him in teaching and not to replace teacher in class. This role is apparent if we analyse some acronyms such as CALL and CAI (Computer assisted Language Learning or Computer aided/assisted instruction) where the letter A stands for the words "Assisted or Aided "indicative of the role of computers as a tool.
Freudenstein (1981:213) stressing out the role of teacher in relation to computer advocates the auxiliary role of computer when he writes that "the use of even the most sophisticated hardware does not automatically guarantee good learning results: It all depends on the most important ‘medium’ in any instructional process: the ‘teacher’. Success and failure of media use in the foreign or second language program are directly related to the way in which teachers have learned to handle machines, have experienced their use in the classroom and are/not willing to accept and work with them."
The generally held view among the language teachers concerning the use of computer is that they are tools and as such should be used both by teachers and students to improve their work  in the sense that it can augment human capabilities and provide limitless possibilities for language learning. What distinguishes computer as a tool from that as a tutor is that the latter, according to Taylor (1980), can be programmed to evaluate students' responses and thus provide with actions to follow while the former cannot, and thus is not directive.
Levy (1997) supports that what is important in CALL as tool is how can computer facilitate teacher in his/her teaching job, that is how can teacher present the designing material more effectively and how can learners acquire most of the teaching process through practice and language use so that learning is succeeded.
Because of its novelty computers transform the "dullest task into an adventure" Geoffrion (1983:50) motivating learners to learn a language because the teacher who uses that "genius tool" in his class can use  “different and more exciting modes than the course book to present new materials with text, sound video and hypertext facilities offering high-quality interactive feed back on vocabulary, grammar, language answers, culture issues, etc., whenever  the student feels s/he needs it.”  (Ypsilandis,1995)
In software where the computer acts as a tutor (e.g. Choice master) computer can be used in a variety of ways to create both  tests with or without error messages, and tests which are linked to reading or listening skills. A latest version of this software provides the user with corrections or hints explaining at the same time why a certain selection was wrong. What is notable with software programs of this type is that the learner can learn without the presence of teacher and in a privacy without being too concerned by possible errors whereas in the classroom they would hold back." (Demaiziere 1983:11-12 in Ahmad et al 1985:115). Of course, as it is apparent, the traditional role of teacher shifts in this case from that of classroom operator to that of a language advisor while the students get used to autonomous learning .
Kenning and Kenning (1983:2) see the computer as a tutor "assessing the learner's reply, recording it, pointing out mistakes, giving explanations. In this way, they claim the learner is guided to find the correct answer and also to adapt the material to suit his/her needs and preference. The same linguist does not like seeing the computer simply as a tool for automating educational practices because, as he claims, the computer represents "both an opportunity and a tool for investigating the very practices which are being automated.” (pp.2)
The fact that the acquisition process is related to the effort to convey or interpret meanings and cannot flourish in activities which concentrate on forms has led several commentators on computer- assisted learning (notably van Campen 1980 and Odendall 1982) to state that the computer should be used for formal grammar drilling which favour learning, thus releasing the teacher to run the freer forms of activity which will enhance acquisition. This combination of teacher and computer sounds sensible. Teachers are good at conveying and interpreting meanings. Computers are good at processes which require patient repetition and attention to detail. The teacher, with established skills in communication, analysis and diagnosis, was depended on to assist and, when necessary, assess the learner.
Commenting on the two roles of computer we would agree with what Ypsylantis (1995) said that "the computer as tool unlike the computer as tutor does not make the teacher redundant, as does the computer as tutor  nor does it suggest a clear- on line role of the teacher. In either case it seems to leave the freedom to the teacher for class-work with the computer.”

Ahmad et al (1985) evaluating the pedagogical contribution of computer admits that the feelings of enthusiasm and enjoyment that the learners who use CALL programs experience, create a positive attitude to the activity of learning and to the subject matters.
According to the same writer  the advantages of computer fall into three types: those which “are part of inherent nature,” those which “benefit the teacher,” and those which “benefit the learner” (Ahmat et al 1985:4). Because of its inherent nature computer can handle a much wider range of activities, and much more powerfully, than other technological aids. More than just this, the computer can offer interactive learning by conducting a two-way learning session with the student. It is much more than a mere programmed textbook, whose powers of interaction are virtually limited to an ability to reveal the correct answer.
The computer can work accurately and precisely. It does not tire, and its attention does not alter. It can repeat an activity with none of the errors which easily arise from repetition by humans. “It can handle a very large volume of interaction and can deliver to students feedback of some subtlety, at more frequent intervals than would be possible for a human teacher in all but individual tuition session.” (Ahmat et al 1985:4)
Computer as a reliable companion:

The computer can also provide privacy to students who can “work freely without being too concerned by possible errors whereas in the classroom they would hold back” (Demaiziere 1983 11-12 in Ahmad et al 1985: 115).
From the point of view of the teacher, the computer presents aspects of a particular promise. Prominent among these is the versatility in handling different kinds of materials. The simplest is the one way presentation of information, in the form of text, graphic, audio and video. “The computer can take the drudgery out of teaching by doing all the boring, repetitive work, leaving to the human teacher the more creative aspects of the job. The computer is an obedient beast and will readily take on the role of drudge if required to.” (Higgins & Johns 1984:9). It can keep score and display the score, records results, errors, success rates, the time spent, and much more information for the teacher to view at a later time. Thus, the teacher can examine students’ errors and scores and other information and decide about the students’ progress and the efficiency of CALL materials. Therefore, the teacher has the possibility to modify easily the exercises and materials he prepares and at the same time the teacher can have access to detail information on his pupils strengths, weaknesses, and progress, which helps them to assess individual learners. So, the computer offers the opportunity to teachers to make better use of their time and expertise and allows them to spend more time on preparation and on activities such as discussion, simulation or project work (Kenning and Kenning 1983). By providing a means of usefully occupying part of the class, it opens up the possibility of small group activities. So in a way computers contribute to a creative and imaginative teaching method in those parts of the course where teacher-student contact is more necessary.
The teacher who uses the computer in his/her teaching should give up the concept of a teacher who is the “knower” giving  his students the opportunity to share in his knowledge. Ager (1986: 103-104) seems to share that concept when he admits that  “Language teaching has always suffered from the necessity for teachers to play God” The new role of teacher is no longer to disseminate knowledge as such, but how to help students get access and aquire information so that knowledge is succeeded.
For students the computer offers many advantages because of flexibility of time and the variety of educational courses it offers to students who may choose when and how long to spend on studying particular topics. More than this, the computer can also allow students to take courses, or parts of courses, at a distance.


Authoring
Wyatt (1984) refers to Authoring package as "authoring system" and describes it as ready- made computer programs that constitute precast formats into which the course writer (teacher) can insert his own pedagogical material. The emphasis to systems like this is always on ease of use. In the introduction to one such system we read "Neither the teacher nor the learner needs to be familiar with anything more technical in relation to the computer than the ability to switch the machine on and the knowledge of which way round to insert a floppy disk into the disk driver - the ‘package’ does the rest" (Wyatt l984:7). Although so far working with an authoring package seems an easy job for the teacher, however, we think it is important to mention here the significance of the teacher being able to choose the right program to meet his/her  need in relation always to the syllabus objectives in which such programs have to be integrated.
Wanting to give an overall aspect of the potential of the authoring packages we cannot but refer to limitations mentioned by Ahmad et al (1985:30) that although they are an easy way to start, however, the package necessarily restricts the form of what the teacher can produce even more than do author languages. The teacher cannot use his imagination to exploit productively the text and develop different form of exercises which he thinks will help students' four skills because authoring packages are “usually confined to the question-answer type of exercise and are generally linear, with no branching facilities.”(Ahmad et al 1985:30).
The program titled Storyboard was developed by John Higgins. It enables the teacher to create a short text, which is displayed on the Computer screen and after a time the text is reduced to dashes indicating the length of the missing words. The student's job is to try to reconstruct the text. The student may follow different strategies. He may begin with low frequency content words, he remembers from the first reading, or high-frequency words such as articles, common verbs, prepositions, conjunctions and pronouns. He may even try collocation skills something which seems more appropriate for an ESP student. Storyboard offers a tremendous flexibility. The student has the option of reading the text first, if the student gets stuck, it is possible to call up the first letter of the word, a whole word itself or to read the text again.
The facility to provide the students with instant feedback sustains student's interest. Moreover, it enables students to feel a sense of accomplishment and progress and the teacher to know whatever the students did to arrive at such an answer. The teacher has access to a detailed information concerning his students, strengths, weaknesses and progress which help him to assess individual learners.


Computer Application in Teaching of Grammar
[ Faizah Mohamad1 and Nazeri Mohamad Amin2
1Universiti Teknologi MARA Terengganu, Malaysia (fareema@tganu.uitm.edu.my)
2Institut Pendidikan Guru Malaysia (Batu Rakit Campus), Malaysia (nazeri222@gmail.com)]
The widespread use of computer courseware in numerous fields and domains has given quite an impact on education especially on the second and foreign language education. With the advent of technologies, courseware with multimedia elements and interactive contents have emerged to assist English language teaching. Since teachers are considered as the guardians of the classrooms, it is important to look into another alternative as a potential assistance to language learning that courseware can offer. However, most readily available coursewares in the market are not tailored to the needs of the local young Malaysian learners. Therefore, this study is to investigate whether a customized courseware specially developed for young learners is effective in teaching specific grammatical items. The study involved 40 young learners in Year 5 at one of the primary schools in the state of Terengganu, Malaysia. A quasi-experimental study was conducted in which 20 learners were put in an experimental group and another 20 learners were put in a control group. The experimental group was exposed to a customized courseware developed based on the syllabus in the teaching of grammatical items and the control group was taught using a traditional method that is using chalk and board and flash cards. A pre-test was administered prior to the treatment and a post-test was administered after the treatment to both groups. The target structures under investigation were past tense and present tense. Under past tense structure, it was further divided into the use of regular and irregular verbs. There were also two components under present tense structure, which were simple and complex structures. The findings showed that generally the customized courseware was effective in teaching grammar. It also found that the effectiveness varied depending on the structures taught. For example, the customized courseware was found effective in the teaching of past tense as compared to the teaching of present tense. The learners in the experimental group also fared better in the irregular verbs as compared to the regular verbs. Nevertheless, the teaching of simple and complex structures by using computer was as effective as teaching the structures by using traditional methods. Since the customized courseware had the potential in improving the learners’ knowledge of grammar, it can be considered as an aid to further capacitating the learners to deal with future learning situations. Furthermore, the role of the teachers might not be merely as the instructors, but they can be the instructional courseware designers who can always find new innovative ways to help learners become better language learners.
Computer Assisted Writing
[American Institutes for Research  1000 Thomas Jefferson St. NW, Washington, DC 20007]

Computer programs for writing help students with developing ideas, organizing, outlining, and brainstorming. Templates provide a framework and reduce the physical effort spent on writing so that students can pay attention to organization and content.

The example at the right, similar to the program Inspiration, demonstrates how a student has organized her writing. Her topic is the Chesapeake Bay. She thinks about three main ideas for her topic: food, fun, and jobs. Next, she adds supporting details for each of her
Teachers should review the computer program or the online activity or game to understand the context of the lessons and determine which ones fit the needs of their students and how they may enhance instruction.

·        Can this program supplement the lesson, give basic skills practice, or be used as an educational reward for students?
·        Is the material presented so that students will remain interested yet not lose valuable instruction time trying to figure out how to operate the program? Does the program waste time with too much animation?
·        Is the program at the correct level for the class or the individual student?
·        Does this program do what the teacher wants it to do (help students organize the writing, speed up the writing process, or allow students to hear what they wrote for editing purposes)?

Teachers should also review all Web sites and links immediately before directing students to them. Web addresses and links frequently change and become inactive. Students might become frustrated when links are no longer available.
Game based Learning:
A mature theory of game-based learning, we argue, will take into account the underlying principles by which they work as learning environments “naturalistically”, or “in the wild,” to borrow Hutchins’s (Hutchins, 1995) term.  Modern video games, with their myriad of toolkits for modeling and interface editing, have increasingly evolved from being compelling mediums that merely engage users passively into spaces (and communities) that empower users to willfully create and disseminate content (Jenkins & Squire 2003; Steinkuehler & Johnson, this volume). As such, video games are not only a pervasive popular culture media, but also form some of the central discourses around 21st century pedagogical practices and what it means to teach or learn in a globalized future. The growing body of literature around video games and learning suggests that games are powerful models for teaching and can potentially affect how people can and ought to learn in the ever-changing landscape of knowledge (Shaffer & Gee, 2006,). A key challenge that remains for educators is how to produce pedagogical models that leverage the strengths of the medium, yet meet educationally valued goals. Restated, we know that players learn through participation in MMOs such as World of Warcraft (Steinkuehler, 2005, Nardi et.al, forthcoming Proc., Galarneau 2006), and that educational interventions that use game technologies (such as networked 3D worlds) can be effective, but how might we harness the simulation, participatory, and aesthetic dimensions of games for intentional learning?



Interactive Multimedia
As a testing device, computers have long been used for test scoring; students or subjects record answers on a special answer sheet, which allows a computer to score the responses (potential benefits and problems are discusses in Anastasi and Urbina, 1997).  But, psychologists are beginning to move beyond using computers only for scoring; research-based computer administered testing instruments are finding application as research tools in psychology.  Researchers have utilized an interactive multimedia test to measure cognitive abilities and conflict resolution skills (Olson-Buchanan, Drasgow, and Moberg 1998), compared the effectiveness of pencil and paper tests to computerized test versions (Donovan, Drasgow and Probst 2000), addressed the pros and cons of interactive multimedia test development (Drasgow, Olson-Buchanan, and Moberg 1999), conducted validation measures of a Computer Based Performance Measure (a test which serves as a criterion measure of job performance for air traffic controller selection) (Hanson, et al. 1999), and identified the areas of assessment best served by interactive multimedia tests (Burroughs, et al. 1999).
          Cartographic research, too, may benefit from implementing interactive multimedia testing instruments.  In cartography, interactive multimedia need not only be limited to displays; the method may also be used effectively as a tool in cartographic research.  While this application has found limited use to data, more researchers may soon discover the flexibility and power of interactive multimedia as part of their research methodology.
Before incorporating interactive multimedia as a tool in a cartographic research project, five factors must be considered; those factors are: potential applications, technological considerations, research tool design, reliability and validity evaluation, and potential usefulness.

Study on Enhancement Process

There are many studies comparing the impacts on students learning in one-to-one laptop programs to others in less technology-rich settings. The information is from multiple sources, e.g. interviews, surveys, classroom observations and from a variety of studies. Generally speaking, these studies confirm the findings of others, resulting in increased confidence in the results.
‘There is substantial evidence that using technology as an instructional tool enhances student learning and educational outcomes.’ (Gulek & Demirtas, 2005)
Overwhelmingly, studies of laptop programs indicated many positive effects for students. Reports indicated that students:
·        have more fun
·        are more enthusiastic
·        have increased engagement in learning
·        are more interested in learning
·        are more self-directed in learning
·        have greater self confidence and self esteem
·        use computers more often for learning
·        focus on improving performance
·        have greater ICT skills
·        increase their research skills
·        improve problem solving and critical thinking skills
·        write more extensively with improved quality
·        have increased access to information
·        can present information more effectively
·        spend more time working collaboratively
·        collaborate better and are more willing to share their work and help each other
·        are engaged in more project-based work
·        enjoy learning actively.
‘We all know that ICT engages children and engagement, of course, is the key to successful teaching.’ (Holmes, 2008)
Students having continuous access to laptops were much more positive in their responses than students using school laptops. They reported increased computer skills, made learning more fun and interesting and provided motivation for learning.
The power of one-to-one computing is in the availability of the learning device for students during the school and at home. (Cisco, 2006)
Students learning and their ability to transfer knowledge across subject areas can be enhanced by laptops as a result of student-focused project work which is collaborative and includes problem-solving and critical thinking. (Gulek & Demirtas, 2005)
Technology is a tool that adds another dimension to student learning. Laptops provide the motivation for students to be engaged in their learning and seeing a connection between what they are learning and the world beyond the classroom. Motivated students have control over their learning and are challenged with a series of goals and share their learning with others. This is a chance to be recognised and to be proud of the work they have done.
Changes in student’s attitudes and work habits survey data from Maine, 2004 with over 12 000 returned surveys:
·        ‘I would rather use my laptop’ 80%
·        ‘Laptops help me be better organised’ 75%
·        ‘Laptops improve the quality of my work’ 70%
·        ‘I do more work when I use my laptop’ 70%
·        ‘I am more likely to edit my work with a laptop’ 80%
·        ‘I am more involved in school with a laptop’ 70%
·        ‘Laptops make school more interesting’ 70%
Teachers report positive impacts of laptops on students with most agreeing that computers have increased opportunities to apply their knowledge and encourages students to think creatively. Almost all agree that using technology in the classroom helps to prepare their students for life in the 21st century. (Zucker & Hug, 2007)
Teachers’ responses in a comparison of teaching with laptops to prior experience without laptops (Grimes & Marschauer, 2008):
·        ‘Students spent more time giving presentations’ 74%
·        ‘Students are more interested in class’ 84%
·        ‘Students help each other more’ 84%
·        ‘Students take more initiative outside of class time’ 65%
·        ‘Students writing quality is better’ 57%
·        ‘Students overall quality of work is better’ 65%
·        ‘Students get more involved in in-depth research’ 85%
·        ‘Students work harder at their assignments’ 79%
·        ‘Students revise their work more’ 78%
A survey of student opinions (850+) in a study in California showed very positive responses to the laptop program:
·        ‘Having a laptop helps keep me organised’ 75% agreed
·        ‘I would rather not use my laptop’ 78% disagreed
·        ‘I prefer to write assignments by hand instead of typing them on my laptop’ 70% disagreed
·        ‘I am more involved at school when I use my laptop’ 56% agreed, 29% neutral
·        ‘I am more likely to revise/edit my work when I use my laptop’ 73% agreed
·        ‘I do more school work when I use my laptop’ 52% agreed, 31% neutral
·        ‘The quality of my work has improved since I got my laptop’ 47% agreed, 37% neutral
Students are very positive about the use of laptops with many believing they had a very positive impact on how much they learned at school and influenced how well they could work with others at school. (Zucker & Hug, 2007)
Now we know what students can do with their laptops and how these activities can influence their learning. But, this is only possible in a successfully implemented program. We will examine the factors that affect implementation in the next section. All the studies used CAL packages for speeding up the content delivery process and also  used computer as a teaching aid pertaining as a secondary source of curriculum transaction. More elaborately to say application of computer in education never been examined as any inducer or enhancer of skills and competencies. All the research studies aimed in delivering contents and teaching – learning mechanisms with the help of modern computer as a new platform of certain innovative facet of content design and delivery engine. Micro level observations rarely considered for examining the exact role of computer as competency enhancer(Zucker & Hug, 2007, Donovan, Drasgow and Probst 2000). Justification of the proposed study is thus advanced with clear cut distinction in between Curriculum Research and Process oriented research study to be combined for examining the role of computer as a competency enhancer.




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