Appendix H: Resource Directory of Gaming in Education
Aarseth, E. (1998) "Allegories of Space: The Question of Spatiality in Computer Games", www.hf.uib.no/hi/espen/papers/space
Aarseth, E. (1997) Perspectives on Ergodic Literature, Johns Hopkins University Press, http://www.hf.uib.no/cybertext
Aarseth, E. (2002). Computer game studies: Year one. Game Studies, 1(1).
Welcome to the first issue of the first academic, peer-reviewed journal dedicated to computer game studies. This is a noteworthy occasion, and perhaps the most remarkable aspect is that such a journal has not been started before. As we know, there have been computer games for almost as long as there have been computers: SpaceWar, arguably the first modern game, turns forty this year, and commercially the genre has existed for three decades. So why not something like this before?
Adelman, H. S., Lauber, B.A., Nelson, P., & Smith, D.C. (1989). Toward a procedure for minimizing and detecting false positive diagnosis of learning disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22(4), 234-244.
Investigated the degree to which a highly motivating computer game learning task can improve differential diagnoses of learning disabilities. Findings from an initial investigation with 23 learning disabled students, aged 12 to 17 years, and 31 nondiagnosed students, aged 9 to 17 years, who were performing poorly at school indicate that a large proportion of Subjects diagnosed as learning disabled were able to learn effectively when pursuing such a task. Results illustrate the important role motivation plays in determining the validity of diagnostic assessment. In addition, they demonstrate that potential value of similar tasks for use in differentiating those who did not have impaired learning processes from among individuals diagnosed as learning disabled. (PsycINFO / Mediascope)
Alloway, N., & Gilbert, P. (1998). Video game culture: Playing with masculinity, violence, and pleasure. In S. Howard (ed.), Wired up: Young people and the electronic media (pp. 95-114). London: UCL Press, Ltd.
Amory, A., Naicker, K., Vincent, J. and Adams, C. (1999) "The use of computer games as an educational tool: identification of appropriate game types and game elements", British Journal of Educational Technology, 30 (4), pp.311-321.
Amory, A. (2001). Building an educational adventure game: Theory, design, and lessons. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 12(2), 249-265.
Anders, K. (1999) "Marketing and policy considerations for violent video games", Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 18 (2), pp.270-273.
Anderson, C. and Dill, K. E. (2000) "Video Games and Aggressive Thoughts, Feelings, and Behaviour in the Laboratory and in Life", Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78 (41), pp.772-790.
Anderson, C. A. and Bushman, B. J. (2001) "Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: A meta-analytic review of the scientific literature", Psychological Science, 12 pp.353-359.
Anderson, C. A., Deuser, W. E. and Deneve, K. M. (1995) "Hot Temperatures, Hostile Affect, Hostile Cognition, and Arousal - Tests of a General-Model of Affective Aggression", Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21 (5), pp.434-448.
Anderson, C. A. and Dill, K. E. (2000) "Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and in life", Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78 (4), pp.772-790.
Anderson, C. A. and Ford, C. M. (1986) "Affect of the Game Player - Short-Term Effects of Highly and Mildly Aggressive Video Games", Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 12 (4), pp.390-402.
Anderson, C. A. and Morrow, M. (1995) "Competitive Aggression without Interaction - Effects of Competitive Versus Cooperative Instructions on Aggressive- Behavior in Video Games", Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21 (10), pp.1020-1030.
Anderson, J. (1996) "Tennis Programming: The Story of the Very First Videogame", www.pong-story.com
Anderson, J. and Wilkins, R. (1998) Getting Unplugged: Take Control of Your Family's Television, Video Game, and Computer Habit, John Wiley & Sons.
Arthur, C. (1993) "How Kids Cope with Video Games", New Scientist, 140 (1902), pp.5-5.
Asakura, R. (2000) Revolutionaries at Sony: The Making of the Sony Playstation and The Visionaries Who Conquered The World of Video Games, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Axelrod, S., et al. (1987). Effects of video games as reinforcers for computerized addition performance. Journal of Special Education Technology, 9(1), 1-8.
Four second-grade students completed addition problems on a computer, using video games as reinforcers. Two variable ratio schedules of reinforcement failed to increase student accuracy or the rate of correct responses. In a no-games reinforcement condition, students had more opportunities to respond and had a greater number of correct answers. (ERIC / Mediascope)
Avedon, E. and Sutton-Smith, B. (Eds.) (1971) The Study of Games, John Wiley and Sons, NY.
Baba, D. M. (1993). Determinants of video game performance. In J. L. Starkes, & F. Allard (ed.), Cognitive Issues in Motor Expertise. Advances in Psychology (Vol. 102, pp. 57-74). Amsterdam, Netherlands: North-Holland / Elsevier Science Publishers.
Studies were conducted to investigate several factors related to video game performance. These included: what people learn when playing video games; what comprises skill in this domain; why are some people better at video games than others; the relation between psychomotor abilities and video game performance; game knowledge and movement control in video game performance. (PsycINFO / Mediascope)
Badinand-Hubert, N., Bureau, M., Hirsch, E., Masnou, P., Nahum, L., Parain, D. and Naquet, R. (1998) "Epilepsies and video games: results of a multicentric study", Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 107 (6), pp.422-427.
Baird, W. E. and Silvern, S. B. (1990) "Electronic games: Children Controlling the Cognitive Environment", Early Child Development and Care, 61 pp.43-49.
Recognizes that the electronic environment is a play environment and electronic games may elicit various forms of play. Electronic games allow children to control the environment and to engage in developmentally appropriate activity. Electronic game environments allow the same materials to be used in many ways selected by the player. Electronic games may provide multiple-perspective, autotelic learning environments and informally facilitate culturally-valued skills and knowledge. This depends on how games are designed, how available they are to children, and whether each game is matched to the child's interest and skill level. Through electronic games, children may control difficulty, game rules, and tools for problem solving, allowing them to construct cognitive tools unavailable to previous generations. (PsycINFO / Mediascope)
Ballance, C. T. and Ballance, V. V. (1992) "Psychology of computer use: XXVI. Computer-related stress and in-class computer usage", Psychological Reports, 71 (1), pp.172-174.
Ballance, C. T. and Ballance, V. V. (1993) "Psychology of computer use: XXVII. Relating self-rated computer experience to computer stress", Psychological Reports, 72 (2), pp.680-682.
Ballance, C. T. and Ballance, V. V. (1996) "Psychology of computer use: XXXVII. Computer-related stress and amount of computer experience", Psychological Reports, 78 (3, Pt 1), pp.968-970.
Baltra, A. (1990). Language learning through computer adventure games. Simulation & Games, 21(4), 445-452.
Investigated the use of computer adventure games for the development of communicative fluency in students of English as a second language. Focused on student-centered activities that use a cooperative learning approach, in which the teacher is seen more as a facilitator than as an instructor. A major issue addressed is how an investigation of what makes computer games fun can provide information on what will motivate a student to learn. (Sage / Mediascope)
Bandi, S. and Thalmann, D. (2000) "Path finding for human motion in virtual environments", Computational Geometry-Theory and Applications, 15 (1-3), pp.103-127.
Banet, B. (1978). Computers and early learning. Creative Computing, 4(5), 90-95.
This paper discusses the effect that microelectronic technology will have on elementary education in the decades ahead, and some of the uses of computers as learning aids for young children, including interactive games, tutorial systems, creative activity and simulation. (ERIC / Mediascope)
Bannert, M. and Arbinger, P. R. (1996) "Gender-related differences in exposure to and use of computers: Results of a survey of secondary school students", European Journal of Psychology of Education, 11 (3), pp.269-282.
Barab, S. A., Cherkes-Julkowski, M., Swenson, R., Garrett. S., Shaw, R. E., & Young, M. (1999). Principles of self-organization: Ecologizing the learner-facilitator system. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 8(3&4), 349-390.
Barab, S. A., & Duffy, T. (2000). From practice fields to communities of practice. In D. Jonassen, & S. M. Land. (Eds.). Theoretical Foundations of Learning Environments (pp. 25-56). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Barab, S. A., Thomas, M.K., Dodge, T. Newell, M. & Squire, K. (in preparation). Design Ethnography: Establishing a Culture of Enrichment Where There Was None1
Barnes, B. J. and Hill, S. (1983) "Should Young Children Work with Microcomputers - Logo before Lego?" The Computing Teacher, 10 (9), pp.11-14.
Barge, G. (1997). How can we teach history through television? Journal of Educational Media, 23(2/3), 203-214.
Bartle, R. 1997. Hearts, clubs, diamonds, spades: Players who suit MUDs. Journal of Virtual Environments. 1 (1). http://www.brandeis.edu/pubs/jove/HTML/v1/bartle.html (accessed April 8, 2005).
Barthes, R. (1972) "Toys" In Barthes, R. (Ed) Mythologies, Vintage, London, pp. 53-55.
Becker, H.A. (1980). The emergence of simulation and gaming. Simulation and Games, 11, 223-345.
Berson, M.J. (1996). Effectiveness of Computer Technology in the Social Studies: A Review of the Literature. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 28 (4), 486-99.
Belavina, I. G. (1995) "The Childs Perception of Computers and Computer Games", Russian Education and Society, 37 (2), pp.29-41.
Belsare, T. J., Gaffney, G. R. and Black, D. W. (1997) "Compulsive computer use", American Journal of Psychiatry, 154 (2), pp.289-290.
Bergin, D. A., Ford, M. E. and Hess, R. D. (1993) "Patterns of motivation and social behavior associated with microcomputer use of young children", Journal of Educational Psychology, 85 (3), pp.437-445.
Bickham, D. S., Wright, J.C., & Huston, A.C. (2000). Attention, comprehension, and the educational influences of television. In D. G. Singer, & J.L. Singer (ed.), Handbook of Children and the Media (Vol. 24, pp. 101-119). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage.
In this chapter, the authors address one of the most frequent and often controversial concerns about television viewing in preschool children. To what extent does the format of American television-characterized as it is by rapid pacing, frequent interruptions either for commercial messages or for changes of subject matter, and shifts in loudness or interpolations of music-affect children's attention spans and their ability to comprehend and later to retrieve program information. This is a matter of special concern when we consider whether programs designed especially for children can have an educational value. In the 1970s, as commercial networks and local stations largely abandoned children's programming, leaving that field to the Public Broadcasting System, two models of formatting emerged. These were exemplified by Sesame Street, which adopted a variation of the faster-paced, lively, short episode, and fast-talking patterns of commercial programming, and Mister Rogers' Neighborhood, which emphasized a slow-talking adult host and relatively longer episodes with a pacing more like that of a parent directly addressing a preschool child. These two programs had different goals (cognitive teaching versus social and personal development) and therefore could not be directly compared. Still, some critics feel that the faster-paced Sesame Street style was ineffective in yielding school-readiness learning and in-depth processing and potentially training children for anticipating a "jazzy" short-sequenced mode of presentation from their first-grade teachers (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
Binmore, K. (1992) Fun and Games, D.C. Heath, Houghton Mifflin.
Blank, D. E. (1982). 'Pac-Man' goes to school: Teaching problem solving in the electronic age. Computing Teacher, 10(1), 50-53.
Presents a problem solving model based on the Pac Man video game designed to help develop systematic, thoughtful, and productive decision making skills. The model and its applications to new situations are discussed. Also considered are steps in the problem solving process, suggested questions for teachers to ask students and anticipated student responses. (ERIC / Mediascope)
Bleecker, J. (1995) "Urban Crisis: Past, Present and Virtual", Socialist Review, 24 (1-2), pp.189-221.
Bliss, J., Kennedy, R.S., Turnage, J.J., & Dunlap, W.P. (1991). Communality of videogame performances with tracking tasks. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 73(1), 23.
Blumberg, F. C. (1998) "Developmental differences at play: Children's selective attention and performance in video games", Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 19 (4), pp.615-624.
Bobko, P., Bobko, D. J. and Davis, M. A. (1984) "A Multidimensional-Scaling of Video Games", Human Factors, 26 (4), pp.477-482.
Bobko, D. J., Bobko, P., & Davis, M.A. (1986). Effect of visual display scale on duration estimates. Human Factors, 28(2), 153-158.
Seventy- two undergraduates played a video game on one of three television screens. Subjects estimated the duration of play and rated the stressfulness of the task. Game scores were also recorded. Findings show that duration estimation was effected by the scale, or size, of visual displays. In particular, verbal estimates of the duration of a fixed interval of time tended to increase as the size of a given visual display decreased. Neither ratings of stress nor game scores were correlated with duration estimates. Results are considered from two general theoretical frameworks, psychobiological chronometer and information storage-size theories. Neither framework appears to account for the findings (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
Boleskina, E. L. (2000) "Consumers of computer games culture", Sotsiologicheskie Issledovaniya, (9), pp.80-87.
Borzekowski, D. L. G., Robinson, T. N. and Killen, J. D. (2000) "Does the camera add 10 pounds? Media use, perceived importance of appearance, and weight concerns among teenage girls", Journal of Adolescent Health, 26 (1), pp.36-41.
Bowles, S., and H. Gintis. 1976. Schooling in capitalist America: Educational reform and contradictions of economic life. New York: Basic Books.
Bowman, R.F. (1982). A Pac-Man theory of motivation. Tactical implications for classroom instruction. Educational Technology 22(9), 14-17.
The author argues in this study that video gamemanship represents conscious, deliberate mental and physical activity and promotes active learning by shifting players into the participant role. Each strategic movement generates a visible response. Moreover, the immediacy of reciprocal responses reduces the sense of distance between the player's efforts and successes. External stimuli are controlled to focus and define exploration and problem solving. Challenges are matched to players' developmental levels to create a psychological sense of flow. Relatedly, the player gains status, self-determination, and sustained enjoyment. It is contended that designing a humane, productive learning environment and a successful video game parlor draws essentially on the same considerations including beliefs about human nature, the nature of learning, and the interests and needs of students. (Association for Educational Communications and Technology / Mediascope)
Bozionelos, N. (1996) "Psychology of computer use: XXXIX. Prevalence of computer anxiety in British managers and professionals", Psychological Reports, 78 (3, Pt 1), pp.995-1002.
Bozionelos, N. (1997) "Psychology of computer use: XLIV. Computer anxiety and learning style", Perceptual and Motor Skills, 84 (3, Pt 1), pp.753-754.
Bozionelos, N. (1997) "Psychology of computer use: XLV. Cognitive spontaneity as a correlate of computer anxiety and attitudes toward computer use", Psychological Reports, 80 (2), pp.395-402.
Bozionelos, N. and Bozionelos, G. (1997) "Psychology of computer use: XL VII: Relation between playfulness and computer anxiety", Psychological Reports, 81 (3, Pt 1), pp.956-958.
Bracey, G. W. (1992). The bright future of integrated learning systems. Educational Technology, 32(9), 60-62.
Considers the future of Integrated Learning Systems (ILSs) and examines hypermedia as the most promising new interactive technology for education. Topics discussed include changes in technology; the use of computers in schools; the value of video games; the impact of ILSs on schools; and cognitive science and cognitive psychology. (ERIC / Mediascope)
Bradley, D. (2000) "Computer games", Chemistry in Britain, 36 (4), pp.25-25.
Bradley, G. and Russell, G. (1997) "Computer experience, school support and computer anxieties", Educational Psychology, 17 (3), pp.267-284.
Brand, S. (1972) "Spacewar: Fantastic Life and Symbolic Death Among the Computer Bums", Rolling Stone Magazine, 7 (12)
Bransford, J. D., Sherwood, R., Vye, N.J., & Rieser, J. (1986). Teaching thinking and problem solving: Suggestions from research. American Psychologist, 41, 1078-1089.
Bransford, J.D. & Schwartz, D.L. (2001). Rethinking Transfer: A Simple Proposal With Multiple Implications. In Iran-Nejad, A. & Pearson, P. D., Eds. Review of Research in Education. (24) pp. 61-100. American Educational Research Association (AERA): Washington, DC.
Bransford, J. D., Franks, J. J., Vye, N. J., & Sherwood, R. D. (1979). New approaches to instruction: Because wisdom can't be told. In S. Vosniadou & A. Ortony (Eds.), Similarity and Analogical Reasoning (pp. 470-497). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Brauer, M., Isgur, B., Simon, R., Crawford, G., Tremblay, G. and Vogel, H. (1981) "Winning with Video Games", Institutional Investor, 15 (9), pp.279-281.
Braun, C. M. J. and Giroux, J. (1989) "Arcade Video Games - Proxemic, Cognitive and Content Analyses", Journal of Leisure Research, 21 (2), pp.92-105.
Brenner, V. (1997) "Psychology of computer use: XLVII. parameters of Internet use, abuse and addiction: the first 90 days of the Internet Usage Survey", Psychological Reports, 80 (3, Pt 1), pp.879-882.
Bringsjord, S. (2001) "Is It Possible to Build Dramatically Compelling Interactive Digital Entertainment (in the form, e.g., of computer games)?*", Game Studies, 1 (1)
Brock, D. B. and Sulsky, L. M. (1994) "Attitudes toward computers: Construct validations and relations to computer use", Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15 (1), pp.17-35.
Brody, H. (1993) "Video Games That Teach", Technology Review, 96 (8), pp.50-57.
Children's passion for Nintendo and its ilk worries parents, who fret about the effects of mindless entertainment. But a marriage between educational-software and video-game manufacturers has begun to yield products that look and feel like games but that actually teach the player something of lasting value (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
Brook, J. and Boal, I. (Eds.) (1995) Resisting The Virtual Life: The Culture and Politics of Information, City Lights Books, San Francisco.
Brougere, G. (1999). Some elements relating to children's play and adult simulation/gaming. Simulation & Gaming, 30(2), 134-146.
Children’s play and adult gaming, each of which are present in the world of education and training, too often refer to different explanatory paradigms. Is this distinction a legitimate one? In what way? This introduction endeavors to provide some answers to these questions, based both on theoretical reflections and on examples given by the authors. The author attempts to demonstrate that these two fields of reflection have everything to gain through mutual enrichment (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
Brougere, G. (1999). Guest editorial: play and simulation/gaming. Simulation & Gaming, 30(2), 132-133.
Brown, R. M., Brown, N.L., & Reid, K. (1992). Evidence for a player's position advantage in a videogame. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 74(2), 547-554.
Tested the hypothesis that the position a player occupies (i.e., right or left of center) affects performance in a ping-pong video game. Forty right-handed male university students performed better when deated on the right than on the left. The right-side advantage was maintained even when Subjects were presented with a mrror-image of the game, indicating that characteristics of the apparatus were not solely responsible for the right-side advantage. The compatibility of certian display and response components in the game may have accounted for the advantage of the player's position (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
Brown, D. L., Declercq, S. D. and Adams, D. E. (2001) "Impact of the consumer marketplace on engineering technology", Sound and Vibration, 35 (6), pp.16-19.
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Brown, S. J., Lieberman, D. A., Gemeny, B. A., Fan, Y. C., Wilson, D. M. and Pasta, D. J. (1997) "Educational video game for juvenile diabetes: Results of a controlled trial", Medical Informatics, 22 (1), pp.77-89.
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Bruckman, A. (1993b). Gender Swapping on the Internet. Proceedings of INET, 93. Reston, VA: The Internet Society, 1993. Presented at the Internet Society (INET '93) in San Francisco, CA. Available online at http://www.cc.gatech.edu/fac/Amy.Brocman/papers/index.html
Bruckman, A. (1994). Approaches to managing deviant behavior in virtual communities. Proceedings of CHI New York: Assocation for Computing Machinery. Available online at http://www.cc.gatech.edu/fac/Amy.Brocman/papers/index.html.
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Bryce, J. (2001) "The technological transformation of leisure", Social Science Computer Review, 19 (1), pp.7-16.
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Bryce, J. and Rutter, J. (2001) "In the Game - In the Flow: Presence in Public Computer Gaming", paper presented at Computer Games & Digital Textualities Conference, IT University of Copenhagen. www.digiplay.org.uk
Bryce, J. and Rutter, J. (2001) "Computer gaming and the routine pursuit of excellence", In Leisure Studies Association Conference proceedings, University of Luton
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Busch, T. (1995) "Gender Differences in Self-Efficacy and Attitudes toward Computers", Journal of Educational Computing Research, 12 (2), pp.147-158.
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Butler, C. (1985) "Utilizing Video Games to Increase Sitting Tolerance", Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 66 (8), pp.527-527.
Calvert, S. L., & Tan, S. (1994). Impact of virtual reality on young adults' physiological arousal and aggressive thoughts: Interaction vs. observation. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 15(1), 125-139.
Calvert, S. L. (2001). Impact of Televised Songs on Children's and Young Adults' Memory of Educational Content. Media Psychology, 3(4), 325-342.
The purpose of the studies presented in this article was to examine the impact of televised songs on children's memory of educational material from School House Rock. School House Rock is an educational television series that teaches history, science, math, and English lessons via short, animated songs targeted to an 8- to 10-year-old audience. Single exposures favored verbal over sung presentations for recognition of important verbal content. After repeated exposure to a second vignette, children and adults remembered more educational material verbatim, but participants still did not recognize significant verbal program content. The results suggest that songs improve verbatim memory, but spoken presentations improve verbal comprehension of content. Policy implications concerning the educational and informational requirements of the Children's Television Act are considered (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
Carlson, S. (2003). Can Grand Theft Auto inspire professors? The Chronicle of Higher Education, August 15, 2003, A31-A33
Campbell, J. (1995) "Adding a Spark to Video Games", Electronics World & Wireless World, (1711), pp.458-458.
Cassady, D. (1997) Official Final Fantasy VII Strategy Guide, Brady Publishing, Indiana.
Cassell, J. and Henry, J. (Eds.) (1988) From Barbie to Mortal Kombat: Gender and Computer Games, MIT Press, Massachusetts.
Cassell, J. and Jenkins, H. (1988) "Chess For Girls" In Cassell, J. and Jenkins, H. (Eds), From Barbie to Mortal Kombat: Gender and Computer Games, MIT Press, Massachusetts, pp. 2-45.
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Castells, M. (2001) The Internet Galaxy : Reflections on the Internet, Business, and Society, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Cavanaugh, K. (1999) "Kabom! Video games get physical", Technology Review, 102 (5), pp.104-105.
Cawson, A., Haddon, L. and Miles, I. (1995) The Shape of Things to Consume: Delivering Information Technology into the Home, Ashgate.
Cesarone, B. (1998) "Video Games: Research, Ratings, Recommendations", http://ericeece.org/pubs/digests/1998/cesar98.html
Chaika, G. V. (1996) "Computer games as a powerful tool for development of memory and attention", International Journal of Psychology, 31 (3-4), pp.84156-84156.
Chainova, L. D. and Gorvits, Y. M. (1994) "Computers for children: Psychological problems of security and comfort", Psikhologicheskiy Zhurnal, 15 (4), pp.63-73.
Chandler, D. (1994) "Video Games and Young Players", www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/short/vidgame.html
Chandler, P. and Sweller, J. (1996) "Cognitive load while learning to use a computer program", Applied Cognitive Psychology, 10 (2), pp.151-170.
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Chappell, K. K. and Taylor, C. S. (1997) "Evidence for the reliability and factorial validity of the Computer Game Attitude Scale", Journal of Educational Computing Research, 17 (1), pp.67-77.
Charlton, J. P. (1999) "Biological sex, sex-role identity and the spectrum of computing orientations: A re-appraisal at the end of the 90s", Journal of Educational Computing Research, 21 (4), pp.393-412.
Chayka, G. V. (2000) "Computer games and adolescents' cognitive abilities", International Journal of Psychology, 35 (3-4), pp.61-61.
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Clegg, A.A. (1991). Games and simulations in social studies education. . In Shaver, J. P., (Ed). Handbook of research on social studies teaching and learning. New York: Macmillan. Pp. 523-528.
Clements, D. H. (1995) "Teaching creativity with computers", Educational Psychology Review, 7 (2), pp.141-161.
Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt. 1990. Anchored instruction and its relationship to situated cognition. Educational Researcher 19 (6): 2-10.
Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt. (1992). The Jasper series as an example of anchored instruction: Theory, program description, and assessment data. Educational Psychologist, 27, 231-315.
Cohn, C. L., & Rentfro, R.W. (1995). Running the US economy: A computer simulation competition for high school students. Journal of Education for Business, 71(2), 64-68.
Cole, M. (1996). Cultural psychology: A Once and future discipline. Cambridge, MA: The Harvard University Press.
Coleman, D. W. (2002). On foot in SIM CITY: Using SIM COPTER as the basis for an ESL writing assignment. Simulation & Gaming, 33(2), 217-230.
This article describes a computer-assisted language learning (CALL) simulation-based activity for ESL writing using SIM COPTER. Participants have two roles: (a) a pilot who must locate an assigned destination and write directions how to walk there and (b) a visitor who must use another participant’s directions to get to an unknown destination. Superficially an exercise in writing simple street directions, the activity requires a serious consideration of audience initially beyond most beginning ESL student writers. The activity makes the concept of audience more accessible by concretizing it. It is argued that ESL texts do not adequately deal with the concept of audience. CALL simulation-based writing activities provide an ideal way to do so in a realistic, communicative way (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
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This study of undergraduate and graduate students examined the potential relationship between spatial aptitude and video game use. The purpose of the study was to determine the relationship between scoring ability on video games and spatial aptitude as defined by standardized tests; explore potential gender differences; and examine effects of video games practice on spatial aptitude scores. (ERIC / Mediascope)
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For more than three decades, researchers and practitioners in the field of English as a foreign language have faced the issue of communicative competence as a goal in language acquisition and how to reach this goal. In this article, the authors address the issue from the point of view of a theoretical and practical meshing of simulation and gaming methodology with theories of foreign language acquisition, including task-based learning, interaction, and comprehensible input, showing how simulation and gaming can be used in those phases of language acquisition in which formal instruction has proved less ineffectual. The objective of this article is to describe the close relationship between the acquisition of foreign language competence and its components and experiential learning through simulation and gaming, with specific reference to two experiments in this area (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
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Discusses the clinical purposes computer-type games can serve in psychotherapy with children. Computer games can aid in the assessment and development of the child's problem-solving abilities. Games also can help the child increase the ability to perceive and recall subtle cues, forsee consequences of actions and act on past consequences, and improve perceptual-motor coordination. In addition, they provide a manner of releasing or controlling aggression, a means of dealing with success and failure, and an opportunity to mutually coordinate activities in a spirit of cooperation. case examples are provided of two boys, aged 5 and 7 years, and one girl, aged 10 years. (PsycINFO / Mediascope)
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Although most agree that games can be engaging and that games can be instructive, there is little consensus regarding the essential characteristics of instructional games. Implicit in the research literature is the notion that if we pair instructional content with certain game features, we can harness the power of games to engage users and achieve desired instructional goals. In this article, the authors present an input-process-output model of instructional games and learning that elaborates (a) the key features of games that are of interest from an instructional perspective; (b) the game cycle of user judgments, behavior, and feedback that is a hallmark of engagement in game play; and (c) the types of learning outcomes that can be achieved. The authors discuss the implications of this approach for the design and implementation of effective instructional games (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
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As video-game playing has become a ubiquitous activity in today's society, it is worth considering its potential consequences on perceptual and motor skills. It is well known that exposing an organism to an altered visual environment often results in modification to the visual system of the organism. The field of perceptual learning provides many examples of training-induced increases in performance. But perceptual learning, when it occurs, tends to be specific to the trained task; that is, generalization to new tasks is rarely found... here we show, by contrast, that action-video-game playing is capable of altering a range of visual skills. Four experiments establish changes in different aspects of visual attention in habitual video-game players compared with non-video-game players. In a fifth experiment, non-players trained on an action video-game show marked improvement from their pre-training abilities, thereby establishing the role of playing in this effect (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
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Argues that video games (VGs) are cultural artifacts that both depend on and develop the iconic mode of representation, particularly the dynamic representation of space. It is suggested that, as cultural artifacts, VGs require and develop a particular set of cognitive skills and are a cultural instrument of cognitive socialization. However, VGs have greater appeal to some groups (e.g., boys) than to others. Reasons for the gender differences are discussed. Future study of VGs and their cognitive effects will have to take account of the multimedia and multimodal sets of representational tools surrounding the increasingly fertile marriage of TV and the computer. (Mediascope)
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Two studies tested whether video games could contribute to the development of spatial representational skills required for humans to interface effectively with computer technology. The authors studies 82 undergraduates to assess the relationship between expertise in a 3-dimensional action arcade video game and the skills of dynamic 3-dimensional spatial representation (SR), as assessed in a mental paper-folding test. Study 1 established a correlation between video game expertise and skill in SR. Study 2 established a causal relationship between video game skill and spatial skill through an experimental paradigm. Short-term video game practice had no effect on mental paper folding. However, structural equation modeling provided strong evidence that video game expertise, developed over the long-term, had a beneficial effect on the spatial skill of mental paper folding (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
Greenfield, P. M., Camaioni, L., Ercolani, P., & Weiss, L. (1994). Cognitive socialization by computer games in two cultures: Inductive discovery or mastery of an iconic code? Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 15(1), 59.
A cross-cultural and experimental examination of computer games as cultural tools of cognitive socialization. This study also investigates the cognitive processes involved in mastering computer games. Research took place in the United States and Italy, which differ in their exposure and attitudes to computer technology. Exposure to computer technology (either over the long term, as a member of a culture, or in the short term of our experimental computer game treatments) was associated with greater skill in decoding scientific-technical information graphically represented on a computer screen with a preference for iconic diagrams rather than the written word in communicating this information. (Mediascope)
Greenfield, P. M., de Winstanley, P., Kilpatrick, H. and Kaye, D. (1994) "Action video games and informal education: effects on strategies for dividing visual attention", Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 15 (1), pp.105-124.
Two experiments investigated the effects of video game expertise on divided visual attention in college students. Divided attention was measured by using response time in targets of varying probabilities of two locations on a computer screen. In one condition, the target appeared ten percent of the time in one location (low probability position), 80 percent of the time in the other location (high probability location, and ten percent of the time in both locations. In the other condition, the target appeared 45 percent of the time in each position (equiprobable or neutral positions) and ten percent of the time in both positions. Subjects for Experiment I represented two extremes of video game skill: experts and novices. Subjects for Experiment II were an unselected group with a continuous distribution of video game performance (labeled more skillful, less skillful). Experiment I established that video game experts were similar to novices in manifesting an attentional benefit at the high probability position. However, unlike novices, experts did not show an attentional cost at the low probability position. Experts also had significantly faster response times than novices at both the ten percent and 80 percent positions, but not at the 45 percent position. Experiment II established that video game experience was a causal factor in improving strategies of divided attention. Five hours of play on a video game called Robotron produced a significant decrease in response time at the ten percent location, the locus of the expert-novice difference in Experiment I. (Mediascope)
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Investigated whether 57 students in fifth, seventh, and ninth grades playing select computer games utilizing spatial skills would improve their scores on a spatial ability measure. A significant treatment effect in favor of the experimental conditions was found in the analysis of covariance. No significant interaction or main effects were found for grade level or sex, indicating that males and females in all three grade levels seemed to benefit from this experience. Results suggest that certain computer games may enhance the development of spatial ability, as measured by a mental rotation test. Identified spatial components of the two games tested included visual perception and discrimination, differentiations of opposite obliques, visualizations of transformations in series, the use of referent systems, and the development and updating of cognitive maps. (PsycINFO / Mediascope)
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Investigated the effects of video game play on the eye-hand coordination of boys and girls aged 7 and 8 years, as measured by the Lafayette Rotary Pursuit. The study concluded that video game playing experience contributed to improved eye-hand coordination and reaction time. (PsycINFO / Mediascope)
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In the three decades since their introduction, video games have become a major force in the lives of American children. The predominant theme of violence in most video games has, not surprisingly, received much attention from parents and researchers. Violence has dominated the video game literature, though other topics such as gender portrayals and potential benefits have received some attention. While most adults have little or no personal experience with video game play, existing research has largely ignored the child's voice and perspective on video games. Against this research backdrop, this qualitative study was aimed at exploring the phenomenological experience of typical child video game players. The two central research questions involved an exploration of child players' experiences and a comparison of children's views with the existing literature. Ten boys, ranging in age from eight to sixteen years, participated in this study. Data collection occurred in participants' homes and included observations of game play, stimulated-recall activities, and child and parent interviews designed to elicit their perspectives regarding the affective, behavioral, and cognitive experiences of video game play. Additionally, self-report questionnaires were used to gather supporting data and four participants attended a group interview. The entire data collection process, including component parts, followed an increasing progression, in terms of the amount of structure employed. Study findings were reported in two ways. First, the case study method was used to present findings for five participants. Results suggested that the experiences of individual participants were, in part, grounded in what each child brought to the experience. Second, comparisons of findings across participants and with the existing literature revealed the role of individual characteristics such as developmental level, temperament, and attitudes, though many issues such as economic concerns and parental concerns were found to be common across participants. In addition to participant-based differences, a number of other factors were shown to influence the experience of video game play, including the social and environmental context of game play and game characteristics. For example, sibling play was contrasted with solitary play and sports games were contrasted with fighting games. Overall, the child's experience of game play was shown to be a complex and evolving phenomenon, worthy of respect and attention from concerned adults (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
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This article describes a symbol-transformation model of play with examples drawn from popular home computer games. The model is used to explain the subjective distortions of time commonly experienced by computer game players. The model has many parallels with, but also some unique advantages and extensions beyond, alternative explanations for time distortion during play. One example is the concept of "flow". Conclusions concern defining the subjective experience of time during play with reference to the symbol transformations of opposition and contextualization. (PsycINFO / Mediascope)
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Discusses the potential for the use of video games in computer-based instruction, the value of such games as motor skill assessment devices, and the influence of game design factors on the motivational value of such games. On the basis of participant observations at several video arcades, the authors discuss the quality of visual displays and the incentives provided by individual scoring systems. Problems are noted with respect to the reliance on the games on color coding and the low fidelity of controls. A video game classification system is proposed that would help link games to training or educational requirements. the instructional value of different types of games are rated in terms of their use of perceptual, psychomotor, memory, and rule- and concept-learning skills. (PsycINFO / Mediascope)
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Describes the amount and difficulty of the print appearing on video game screens on the basis of the application of a readability formula to several games. Educational implications of children's exposure to video games include the possibility of using video games to increase reading speed and to improve skimming and scanning skills of good but slow readers. Problems with habitual use of video games include exposure to writing models that do not use complete sentences and that lack punctuation. (PsycINFO / Mediascope)
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The authors examined the influence of interactive media on children's story memory. First-grade children (children aged 6 to 7 years) experienced a computer-based story in one of four presentation modes. One group heard only the narration, analogous to radio. A second group saw an audiovisual presentation, analogous to television. A third group viewed the story and interacted with animated areas of the screen, and the fourth group was yoked to the interaction group such that they observed but did not control the interaction. The audio-only group consistently recalled and comprehended poorly, but there were no differences among the other media groups. In the interaction groups, there was also no relation between the amount of interaction with the story and subsequent memory. Overall, the results for interactive media were similar to the findings for the television-like presentation (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
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Children vary in the amount of time they spend playing computer and video games and in their preference for particular types of game content. The purpose of this study was to describe time-use patterns of 572 children 1–12 years of age. Game categories (educational, sports, sensorimotor, strategy, and other) and context of play (secondary activities, location of play, and who was with the child when playing) were analyzed by child age, sex, and ethnicity. Total minutes of interactive game play increased as a function of age, with boys' playing time higher and rising faster than girls' playing time. Younger children played more minutes of educational games than did older children, and girls more than boys. African American children reported little educational play at any age. Generally, sensorimotor and sports play increased as a function of age, with boys reporting significantly more minutes than girls at all ages. African American children spent a greater proportion of their time playing games whose titles were “unknown” than did White children. All groups of children spent about 60 percent of their game time focused only on interactive games, and about 30 percent of their game time communicating with others while playing. About 80 percent of the time spent playing games occurred in children's own homes. The youngest children, 1–5 years, spent a higher proportion of their time with adults present (20 percent), while the 9–12 year olds spent less time with adults (8 percent) and relatively more time alone (44 percent). Children of all ages, sexes, and ethnic groups spent 32–38 percent of their game time playing with other youths (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
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What's interactive, looks and feels like a video game, yet teaches kids reading and math? It's called "edutainment", and it's the latest buzzword in education. Edutainment is still in its infancy--and there are plenty of skeptics--but jazzy multimedia computers are already reinventing the way children learn, at home and in school. And demand for high-tech teaching tools is fueling a hot new industry. It's a revolution that may finally fulfill computers' educational promise and transform the rules of the classroom (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
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Computer and video games are a maturing medium and industry and have caught the attention of scholars across a variety of disciplines. By and large, computer and video games have been ignored by educators. When educators have discussed games, they have focused on the social consequences of game play, ignoring important educational potentials of gaming. This paper examines the history of games in educational research, and argues that the cognitive potential of games have been largely ignored by educators. Contemporary developments in gaming, particularly interactive stories, digital authoring tools, and collaborative worlds, suggest powerful new opportunities for educational media (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
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Is there truly any difference between the games we enjoyed as children and some of the more dynamic and energizing experiential exercises used today for management education, training, and development? The author of this article presents a collection of such experiential exercises, with roots that can be traced to a variety of games that are still being played by our children. Although not totally novel and unique, many children’s games containing music, magic, and other fun activities are becoming more and more widely used to enhance the dynamism and excitement of management education, training, and development. They can also easily be customized to be used as icebreakers and/or energizers or used as complete interactive exercises to enhance the management education process. The old proverb that “a lesson taught with an entertaining facet is a lesson retained” is still alive and well (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
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Welcome to the first issue of the first academic, peer-reviewed journal dedicated to computer game studies. This is a noteworthy occasion, and perhaps the most remarkable aspect is that such a journal has not been started before. As we know, there have been computer games for almost as long as there have been computers: SpaceWar, arguably the first modern game, turns forty this year, and commercially the genre has existed for three decades. So why not something like this before?
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Investigated the degree to which a highly motivating computer game learning task can improve differential diagnoses of learning disabilities. Findings from an initial investigation with 23 learning disabled students, aged 12 to 17 years, and 31 nondiagnosed students, aged 9 to 17 years, who were performing poorly at school indicate that a large proportion of Subjects diagnosed as learning disabled were able to learn effectively when pursuing such a task. Results illustrate the important role motivation plays in determining the validity of diagnostic assessment. In addition, they demonstrate that potential value of similar tasks for use in differentiating those who did not have impaired learning processes from among individuals diagnosed as learning disabled. (PsycINFO / Mediascope)
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Four second-grade students completed addition problems on a computer, using video games as reinforcers. Two variable ratio schedules of reinforcement failed to increase student accuracy or the rate of correct responses. In a no-games reinforcement condition, students had more opportunities to respond and had a greater number of correct answers. (ERIC / Mediascope)
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Studies were conducted to investigate several factors related to video game performance. These included: what people learn when playing video games; what comprises skill in this domain; why are some people better at video games than others; the relation between psychomotor abilities and video game performance; game knowledge and movement control in video game performance. (PsycINFO / Mediascope)
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Recognizes that the electronic environment is a play environment and electronic games may elicit various forms of play. Electronic games allow children to control the environment and to engage in developmentally appropriate activity. Electronic game environments allow the same materials to be used in many ways selected by the player. Electronic games may provide multiple-perspective, autotelic learning environments and informally facilitate culturally-valued skills and knowledge. This depends on how games are designed, how available they are to children, and whether each game is matched to the child's interest and skill level. Through electronic games, children may control difficulty, game rules, and tools for problem solving, allowing them to construct cognitive tools unavailable to previous generations. (PsycINFO / Mediascope)
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Investigated the use of computer adventure games for the development of communicative fluency in students of English as a second language. Focused on student-centered activities that use a cooperative learning approach, in which the teacher is seen more as a facilitator than as an instructor. A major issue addressed is how an investigation of what makes computer games fun can provide information on what will motivate a student to learn. (Sage / Mediascope)
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This paper discusses the effect that microelectronic technology will have on elementary education in the decades ahead, and some of the uses of computers as learning aids for young children, including interactive games, tutorial systems, creative activity and simulation. (ERIC / Mediascope)
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In this chapter, the authors address one of the most frequent and often controversial concerns about television viewing in preschool children. To what extent does the format of American television-characterized as it is by rapid pacing, frequent interruptions either for commercial messages or for changes of subject matter, and shifts in loudness or interpolations of music-affect children's attention spans and their ability to comprehend and later to retrieve program information. This is a matter of special concern when we consider whether programs designed especially for children can have an educational value. In the 1970s, as commercial networks and local stations largely abandoned children's programming, leaving that field to the Public Broadcasting System, two models of formatting emerged. These were exemplified by Sesame Street, which adopted a variation of the faster-paced, lively, short episode, and fast-talking patterns of commercial programming, and Mister Rogers' Neighborhood, which emphasized a slow-talking adult host and relatively longer episodes with a pacing more like that of a parent directly addressing a preschool child. These two programs had different goals (cognitive teaching versus social and personal development) and therefore could not be directly compared. Still, some critics feel that the faster-paced Sesame Street style was ineffective in yielding school-readiness learning and in-depth processing and potentially training children for anticipating a "jazzy" short-sequenced mode of presentation from their first-grade teachers (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
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Presents a problem solving model based on the Pac Man video game designed to help develop systematic, thoughtful, and productive decision making skills. The model and its applications to new situations are discussed. Also considered are steps in the problem solving process, suggested questions for teachers to ask students and anticipated student responses. (ERIC / Mediascope)
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Seventy- two undergraduates played a video game on one of three television screens. Subjects estimated the duration of play and rated the stressfulness of the task. Game scores were also recorded. Findings show that duration estimation was effected by the scale, or size, of visual displays. In particular, verbal estimates of the duration of a fixed interval of time tended to increase as the size of a given visual display decreased. Neither ratings of stress nor game scores were correlated with duration estimates. Results are considered from two general theoretical frameworks, psychobiological chronometer and information storage-size theories. Neither framework appears to account for the findings (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
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The author argues in this study that video gamemanship represents conscious, deliberate mental and physical activity and promotes active learning by shifting players into the participant role. Each strategic movement generates a visible response. Moreover, the immediacy of reciprocal responses reduces the sense of distance between the player's efforts and successes. External stimuli are controlled to focus and define exploration and problem solving. Challenges are matched to players' developmental levels to create a psychological sense of flow. Relatedly, the player gains status, self-determination, and sustained enjoyment. It is contended that designing a humane, productive learning environment and a successful video game parlor draws essentially on the same considerations including beliefs about human nature, the nature of learning, and the interests and needs of students. (Association for Educational Communications and Technology / Mediascope)
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Considers the future of Integrated Learning Systems (ILSs) and examines hypermedia as the most promising new interactive technology for education. Topics discussed include changes in technology; the use of computers in schools; the value of video games; the impact of ILSs on schools; and cognitive science and cognitive psychology. (ERIC / Mediascope)
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Children's passion for Nintendo and its ilk worries parents, who fret about the effects of mindless entertainment. But a marriage between educational-software and video-game manufacturers has begun to yield products that look and feel like games but that actually teach the player something of lasting value (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
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Children’s play and adult gaming, each of which are present in the world of education and training, too often refer to different explanatory paradigms. Is this distinction a legitimate one? In what way? This introduction endeavors to provide some answers to these questions, based both on theoretical reflections and on examples given by the authors. The author attempts to demonstrate that these two fields of reflection have everything to gain through mutual enrichment (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
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Tested the hypothesis that the position a player occupies (i.e., right or left of center) affects performance in a ping-pong video game. Forty right-handed male university students performed better when deated on the right than on the left. The right-side advantage was maintained even when Subjects were presented with a mrror-image of the game, indicating that characteristics of the apparatus were not solely responsible for the right-side advantage. The compatibility of certian display and response components in the game may have accounted for the advantage of the player's position (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
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The purpose of the studies presented in this article was to examine the impact of televised songs on children's memory of educational material from School House Rock. School House Rock is an educational television series that teaches history, science, math, and English lessons via short, animated songs targeted to an 8- to 10-year-old audience. Single exposures favored verbal over sung presentations for recognition of important verbal content. After repeated exposure to a second vignette, children and adults remembered more educational material verbatim, but participants still did not recognize significant verbal program content. The results suggest that songs improve verbatim memory, but spoken presentations improve verbal comprehension of content. Policy implications concerning the educational and informational requirements of the Children's Television Act are considered (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
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This article describes a computer-assisted language learning (CALL) simulation-based activity for ESL writing using SIM COPTER. Participants have two roles: (a) a pilot who must locate an assigned destination and write directions how to walk there and (b) a visitor who must use another participant’s directions to get to an unknown destination. Superficially an exercise in writing simple street directions, the activity requires a serious consideration of audience initially beyond most beginning ESL student writers. The activity makes the concept of audience more accessible by concretizing it. It is argued that ESL texts do not adequately deal with the concept of audience. CALL simulation-based writing activities provide an ideal way to do so in a realistic, communicative way (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
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This study discusses the manner in which the physical aspects of interactive video, defined as any television image that can be controlled by the viewer, constrain and elicit what children chose to symbolize in their play. In addition, it identifies the impact of interactive video on pausing and reflective bahavior in children. (PsychINFO / Mediascope)
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This study of undergraduate and graduate students examined the potential relationship between spatial aptitude and video game use. The purpose of the study was to determine the relationship between scoring ability on video games and spatial aptitude as defined by standardized tests; explore potential gender differences; and examine effects of video games practice on spatial aptitude scores. (ERIC / Mediascope)
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For more than three decades, researchers and practitioners in the field of English as a foreign language have faced the issue of communicative competence as a goal in language acquisition and how to reach this goal. In this article, the authors address the issue from the point of view of a theoretical and practical meshing of simulation and gaming methodology with theories of foreign language acquisition, including task-based learning, interaction, and comprehensible input, showing how simulation and gaming can be used in those phases of language acquisition in which formal instruction has proved less ineffectual. The objective of this article is to describe the close relationship between the acquisition of foreign language competence and its components and experiential learning through simulation and gaming, with specific reference to two experiments in this area (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
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Discusses the clinical purposes computer-type games can serve in psychotherapy with children. Computer games can aid in the assessment and development of the child's problem-solving abilities. Games also can help the child increase the ability to perceive and recall subtle cues, forsee consequences of actions and act on past consequences, and improve perceptual-motor coordination. In addition, they provide a manner of releasing or controlling aggression, a means of dealing with success and failure, and an opportunity to mutually coordinate activities in a spirit of cooperation. case examples are provided of two boys, aged 5 and 7 years, and one girl, aged 10 years. (PsycINFO / Mediascope)
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Although most agree that games can be engaging and that games can be instructive, there is little consensus regarding the essential characteristics of instructional games. Implicit in the research literature is the notion that if we pair instructional content with certain game features, we can harness the power of games to engage users and achieve desired instructional goals. In this article, the authors present an input-process-output model of instructional games and learning that elaborates (a) the key features of games that are of interest from an instructional perspective; (b) the game cycle of user judgments, behavior, and feedback that is a hallmark of engagement in game play; and (c) the types of learning outcomes that can be achieved. The authors discuss the implications of this approach for the design and implementation of effective instructional games (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
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As video-game playing has become a ubiquitous activity in today's society, it is worth considering its potential consequences on perceptual and motor skills. It is well known that exposing an organism to an altered visual environment often results in modification to the visual system of the organism. The field of perceptual learning provides many examples of training-induced increases in performance. But perceptual learning, when it occurs, tends to be specific to the trained task; that is, generalization to new tasks is rarely found... here we show, by contrast, that action-video-game playing is capable of altering a range of visual skills. Four experiments establish changes in different aspects of visual attention in habitual video-game players compared with non-video-game players. In a fifth experiment, non-players trained on an action video-game show marked improvement from their pre-training abilities, thereby establishing the role of playing in this effect (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
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Argues that video games (VGs) are cultural artifacts that both depend on and develop the iconic mode of representation, particularly the dynamic representation of space. It is suggested that, as cultural artifacts, VGs require and develop a particular set of cognitive skills and are a cultural instrument of cognitive socialization. However, VGs have greater appeal to some groups (e.g., boys) than to others. Reasons for the gender differences are discussed. Future study of VGs and their cognitive effects will have to take account of the multimedia and multimodal sets of representational tools surrounding the increasingly fertile marriage of TV and the computer. (Mediascope)
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Two studies tested whether video games could contribute to the development of spatial representational skills required for humans to interface effectively with computer technology. The authors studies 82 undergraduates to assess the relationship between expertise in a 3-dimensional action arcade video game and the skills of dynamic 3-dimensional spatial representation (SR), as assessed in a mental paper-folding test. Study 1 established a correlation between video game expertise and skill in SR. Study 2 established a causal relationship between video game skill and spatial skill through an experimental paradigm. Short-term video game practice had no effect on mental paper folding. However, structural equation modeling provided strong evidence that video game expertise, developed over the long-term, had a beneficial effect on the spatial skill of mental paper folding (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
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A cross-cultural and experimental examination of computer games as cultural tools of cognitive socialization. This study also investigates the cognitive processes involved in mastering computer games. Research took place in the United States and Italy, which differ in their exposure and attitudes to computer technology. Exposure to computer technology (either over the long term, as a member of a culture, or in the short term of our experimental computer game treatments) was associated with greater skill in decoding scientific-technical information graphically represented on a computer screen with a preference for iconic diagrams rather than the written word in communicating this information. (Mediascope)
Greenfield, P. M., de Winstanley, P., Kilpatrick, H. and Kaye, D. (1994) "Action video games and informal education: effects on strategies for dividing visual attention", Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 15 (1), pp.105-124.
Two experiments investigated the effects of video game expertise on divided visual attention in college students. Divided attention was measured by using response time in targets of varying probabilities of two locations on a computer screen. In one condition, the target appeared ten percent of the time in one location (low probability position), 80 percent of the time in the other location (high probability location, and ten percent of the time in both locations. In the other condition, the target appeared 45 percent of the time in each position (equiprobable or neutral positions) and ten percent of the time in both positions. Subjects for Experiment I represented two extremes of video game skill: experts and novices. Subjects for Experiment II were an unselected group with a continuous distribution of video game performance (labeled more skillful, less skillful). Experiment I established that video game experts were similar to novices in manifesting an attentional benefit at the high probability position. However, unlike novices, experts did not show an attentional cost at the low probability position. Experts also had significantly faster response times than novices at both the ten percent and 80 percent positions, but not at the 45 percent position. Experiment II established that video game experience was a causal factor in improving strategies of divided attention. Five hours of play on a video game called Robotron produced a significant decrease in response time at the ten percent location, the locus of the expert-novice difference in Experiment I. (Mediascope)
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Investigated whether 57 students in fifth, seventh, and ninth grades playing select computer games utilizing spatial skills would improve their scores on a spatial ability measure. A significant treatment effect in favor of the experimental conditions was found in the analysis of covariance. No significant interaction or main effects were found for grade level or sex, indicating that males and females in all three grade levels seemed to benefit from this experience. Results suggest that certain computer games may enhance the development of spatial ability, as measured by a mental rotation test. Identified spatial components of the two games tested included visual perception and discrimination, differentiations of opposite obliques, visualizations of transformations in series, the use of referent systems, and the development and updating of cognitive maps. (PsycINFO / Mediascope)
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Investigated the effects of video game play on the eye-hand coordination of boys and girls aged 7 and 8 years, as measured by the Lafayette Rotary Pursuit. The study concluded that video game playing experience contributed to improved eye-hand coordination and reaction time. (PsycINFO / Mediascope)
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In the three decades since their introduction, video games have become a major force in the lives of American children. The predominant theme of violence in most video games has, not surprisingly, received much attention from parents and researchers. Violence has dominated the video game literature, though other topics such as gender portrayals and potential benefits have received some attention. While most adults have little or no personal experience with video game play, existing research has largely ignored the child's voice and perspective on video games. Against this research backdrop, this qualitative study was aimed at exploring the phenomenological experience of typical child video game players. The two central research questions involved an exploration of child players' experiences and a comparison of children's views with the existing literature. Ten boys, ranging in age from eight to sixteen years, participated in this study. Data collection occurred in participants' homes and included observations of game play, stimulated-recall activities, and child and parent interviews designed to elicit their perspectives regarding the affective, behavioral, and cognitive experiences of video game play. Additionally, self-report questionnaires were used to gather supporting data and four participants attended a group interview. The entire data collection process, including component parts, followed an increasing progression, in terms of the amount of structure employed. Study findings were reported in two ways. First, the case study method was used to present findings for five participants. Results suggested that the experiences of individual participants were, in part, grounded in what each child brought to the experience. Second, comparisons of findings across participants and with the existing literature revealed the role of individual characteristics such as developmental level, temperament, and attitudes, though many issues such as economic concerns and parental concerns were found to be common across participants. In addition to participant-based differences, a number of other factors were shown to influence the experience of video game play, including the social and environmental context of game play and game characteristics. For example, sibling play was contrasted with solitary play and sports games were contrasted with fighting games. Overall, the child's experience of game play was shown to be a complex and evolving phenomenon, worthy of respect and attention from concerned adults (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
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This article describes a symbol-transformation model of play with examples drawn from popular home computer games. The model is used to explain the subjective distortions of time commonly experienced by computer game players. The model has many parallels with, but also some unique advantages and extensions beyond, alternative explanations for time distortion during play. One example is the concept of "flow". Conclusions concern defining the subjective experience of time during play with reference to the symbol transformations of opposition and contextualization. (PsycINFO / Mediascope)
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Discusses the potential for the use of video games in computer-based instruction, the value of such games as motor skill assessment devices, and the influence of game design factors on the motivational value of such games. On the basis of participant observations at several video arcades, the authors discuss the quality of visual displays and the incentives provided by individual scoring systems. Problems are noted with respect to the reliance on the games on color coding and the low fidelity of controls. A video game classification system is proposed that would help link games to training or educational requirements. the instructional value of different types of games are rated in terms of their use of perceptual, psychomotor, memory, and rule- and concept-learning skills. (PsycINFO / Mediascope)
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Describes the amount and difficulty of the print appearing on video game screens on the basis of the application of a readability formula to several games. Educational implications of children's exposure to video games include the possibility of using video games to increase reading speed and to improve skimming and scanning skills of good but slow readers. Problems with habitual use of video games include exposure to writing models that do not use complete sentences and that lack punctuation. (PsycINFO / Mediascope)
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The authors examined the influence of interactive media on children's story memory. First-grade children (children aged 6 to 7 years) experienced a computer-based story in one of four presentation modes. One group heard only the narration, analogous to radio. A second group saw an audiovisual presentation, analogous to television. A third group viewed the story and interacted with animated areas of the screen, and the fourth group was yoked to the interaction group such that they observed but did not control the interaction. The audio-only group consistently recalled and comprehended poorly, but there were no differences among the other media groups. In the interaction groups, there was also no relation between the amount of interaction with the story and subsequent memory. Overall, the results for interactive media were similar to the findings for the television-like presentation (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
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Children vary in the amount of time they spend playing computer and video games and in their preference for particular types of game content. The purpose of this study was to describe time-use patterns of 572 children 1–12 years of age. Game categories (educational, sports, sensorimotor, strategy, and other) and context of play (secondary activities, location of play, and who was with the child when playing) were analyzed by child age, sex, and ethnicity. Total minutes of interactive game play increased as a function of age, with boys' playing time higher and rising faster than girls' playing time. Younger children played more minutes of educational games than did older children, and girls more than boys. African American children reported little educational play at any age. Generally, sensorimotor and sports play increased as a function of age, with boys reporting significantly more minutes than girls at all ages. African American children spent a greater proportion of their time playing games whose titles were “unknown” than did White children. All groups of children spent about 60 percent of their game time focused only on interactive games, and about 30 percent of their game time communicating with others while playing. About 80 percent of the time spent playing games occurred in children's own homes. The youngest children, 1–5 years, spent a higher proportion of their time with adults present (20 percent), while the 9–12 year olds spent less time with adults (8 percent) and relatively more time alone (44 percent). Children of all ages, sexes, and ethnic groups spent 32–38 percent of their game time playing with other youths (Strover & Pelletier, 2003).
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Twenty-four primary school children with average intelligence and no oral language comprehension deficits, but who were 18 or more months behind their peers in reading comprehension, participated in an evaluation of two approaches to reading remediation. Half the Subjects received teacher-based tutoring using the DISTAR program. The remaining Subjects received practice on four computer games. The games were designed to improve performance on a set of information-processing components shown to have an impact on reading comprehension. Training in both conditions focused mainly on word decoding and phonics. Although almost all Subjects improved their reading comprehension test scores after training, the poorest readers made significantly greater gains in the componential training condition than in the DISTAR condition. (PsycINFO / Mediascope)
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